In the history of public health, space has evolved through several stages driven by shifts in concepts of disease control. The history of public health is summarized by George Rosen in six phases: Origins (before 500 CE), Middle Ages (500–1500), Mercantilism and Absolutism (1500–1750), Enlightenment and Revolution (1750–1830), Industrialism and the Sanitary Movement (1830–1875), and the Bacteriological Era (1875–present). By integrating architectural sociology—a temporal lens examining the interplay between architecture, individuals, and society—this study investigates how architects historically responded to public health challenges, offering critical insights for contemporary healthy habitat design. Architecture not only addresses survival needs but also materializes societal consciousness. The progression of health-related cognition (e.g., germ theory), behavioural norms (e.g., hygiene practices), infrastructure systems (e.g., sanitation networks), and scientific advancements collectively redefined spatial paradigms. Architects constructed temples, thermae, lazarettos, Beitian Yangbingfang (charitable infirmaries), anatomical theaters, quarantine hospitals, tenements, mass housing, and biosafety laboratories. These cases exemplify the co-evolution of “Concept” (disease control ideologies), “Technology” (construction methods), and “Space” (built environments). By synthesizing centuries of public health spatial practices, this research deciphers the dynamic interplay among “Concept, Technology, and Space”. Leveraging historical patterns, we propose a predictive framework to refine future spatial strategies in anticipation of emerging health crises.

We report on the measurement of the response of Rhodamine 6G (R6G) dye to enhanced local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) using a plasmonic-active nanostructured thin gold film (PANTF) sensor. This sensor features an active area of approximately ≈ 2.5 × 10¹³ nm² and is immobilized with gold nanourchins (GNU) on a thin gold film substrate (TGFS). The hexane-functionalized TGFS was immobilized with a 90 nm diameter GNU via the strong sulfhydryl group (SH) thiol bond and excited by a 637 nm Raman probe. To collect both Raman and SERS spectra, 10 μL of R6G was used at concentrations of 1 μM (6 × 10¹² molecules) and 10 mM (600 × 10¹⁴ molecules), respectively. FT-NIR showed a higher reflectivity of PANTF than TGFS. SERS was performed three times at three different laser powers for TGFS and PANTF with R6G. Two PANTF substrates were prepared at different GNU incubation times of 10 and 60 min for the purpose of comparison. The code for processing the data was written in Python. The data was filtered using the filtfilt filter from scipy.signals, and baseline corrected using the Improved Asymmetric Least Squares (ISALS) function from the pybaselines.Whittaker library. The results were then normalized using the minmax_scale function from sklearn.preprocessing. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was used to capture the topography of the substrates. Signals exhibited a stochastic fluctuation in intensity and shape. An average corresponding enhancement factor (EF) of 0.3 × 10⁵ and 0.14 × 10⁵ was determinedforPANTFincubated at 10 and 60 min, respectively.

The Cisadane Watershed is in a critical state, which has expanded residential areas upstream of Cisadane. Changes in land use and cover can impact a region’s hydrological characteristics. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a hydrological model that can simulate the hydrological characteristics of the watershed affected by land use. This study aims to evaluate the impact of land use change on the hydrological characteristics of the Cisadane watershed using SWAT under different land use scenarios. The models were calibrated and validated, and the results showed satisfactory agreement between observed and simulated streamflow. The main river channel is based on the results of the watershed delineation process, with the watershed boundary consisting of 85 sub-watersheds. The hydrological characteristics showed that the maximum flow rate (Q max) was 12.30 m³/s, and the minimum flow rate (Q min) was 5.50 m³/s. The study area’s distribution of future land use scenarios includes business as usual (BAU), protecting paddy fields (PPF), and protecting forest areas (PFA). The BAU scenario had the worst effect on hydrological responses due to the decreasing forests and paddy fields. The PFA scenario yielded the most favourable hydrological response, achieving a notable reduction from the baseline BAU in surface flow, lateral flow, and groundwater by 2%, 7%, and 2%, respectively. This was attributed to enhanced water infiltration, alongside increases in water yield and evapotranspiration of 3% and 15%, respectively. l Therefore, it is vital to maintain green vegetation and conserve land to support sustainable water availability.

Soil salinity is a major abiotic stress that drastically hinders plant growth and development, resulting in lower crop yields and productivity. As one of the most consumed vegetables worldwide, tomato (Solanum lycropersicum L.) plays a key role in the human diet. The current study aimed to explore the differential tolerance level of two tomato varieties (Rio Grande and Agata) to salt stress. To this end, various growth, physiological and biochemical attributes were assessed after two weeks of 100 mM NaCl treatment. Obtained findings indicated that, although the effects of salt stress included noticeable reductions in shoots’ and roots’ dry weights and relative growth rate as well as total leaf area, for the both cultivars, Rio Grande performed better compared to Agata variety. Furthermore, despite the exposure to salt stress, Rio Grande was able to maintain an adequate tissue hydration and a high leaf mass per area (LMA) through the accumulation of proline. However, relative water content, LMA and proline content were noticeably decreased for Agata cultivar. Likewise, total leaf chlorophyll, soluble proteins and total carbohydrates were significantly decreased; whereas, malondialdehyde was significantly accumulated in response to salt stress for the both cultivars. Moreover, such negative effects were remarkably more pronounced for Agata relative to Rio Grande cultivar. Overall, the current study provided evidence that, at the early growth stage, Rio Grande is more tolerant to salt stress than Agata variety. Therefore, Rio Grande variety may constitute a good candidate for inclusion in tomato breeding programs for salt-tolerance and is highly recommended for tomato growers, particularly in salt-affected fields.