Journal Browser
Search
Applicable methodologies for modelling of heat and mass transfer phenomena in tumble dryers: A review
Sajad Salavati
Arash Hajisharifi
Michele Girfoglio
Giovanni Stabile
Gianluigi Rozza
Thermal Science and Engineering 2026, 9(2), 026100001; https://doi.org/10.24294/tse026100001
Submitted:23 Mar 2024
Accepted:13 May 2026
Published:27 Jul 2026
+
Cite This Article
Abstract
Tumble dryers are convenient but energy-intensive, and their performance depends on coupled heat and mass transfer within the drum and air circuit. This review evaluates mathematical modeling approaches for these processes, spanning 0-D lumped-parameter models, 1-D heat and moisture transfer models, and kinematic and image-processing methods, across vented, condenser, and heat-pump dryer types. Literature was drawn from peer-reviewed sources published roughly since the 1990s. The Chilton–Colburn analogy remains the dominant framework for evaporation-rate modeling, but its reliance on constant transfer coefficients, uniform textile temperature, and saturated surface assumptions limits its accuracy during the falling-rate drying period, when evaporation slows and a larger fraction of supplied energy may be diverted to heating the textiles and drum rather than moisture removal. This review’s contribution lies in systematically comparing classical models (Lambert, Deans) against newer 1-D, regression-based, kinematic, and image-processing strategies, clarifying the assumptions, applicability boundaries, and engineering trade-offs of each. The findings point toward hybrid, uncertainty-aware models that couple energy-balance formulations with variable transfer coefficients, textile-motion data, and data-driven tools as the most promising path forward for energy-efficient dryer design and control.
References
1.Lambert AJD, Spruit FPM, Claus J. Modelling as a tool for evaluating the effects of energy-saving measures. Case study: A tumbler drier. Applied Energy. 1991; 38(1): 33–47. doi: 10.1016/0306-2619(91)90089-9
2.Deans J. The modelling of a domestic tumbler dryer. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2001; 21(9): 977–990. doi: 10.1016/S1359-4311(00)00096-9
3.Wei Y, Hua J, Ding X. A mathematical model for simulating heat and moisture transfer within porous cotton fabric drying inside the domestic air-vented drum dryer. The Journal of The Textile Institute. 2017; 108(6): 1074–1084. doi: 10.1080/00405000.2016.1219473
4.Menon A, Stojceska V, Tassou SA. A systematic review on the recent advances of the energy efficiency improvements in non-conventional food drying technologies. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2020; 100: 67–76. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.03.041
5.Acar C, Dincer I, Mujumdar A. A comprehensive review of recent advances in renewable-based drying technologies for a sustainable future. Drying Technology. 2022; 40(6): 1029–1050. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2020.1849270
6.Miraei Ashtiani SH, Rafiee M, Mohebi Morad M, Martynenko A. Cold plasma pretreatment improves the quality and nutritional value of ultrasound-assisted convective drying: The case of goldenberry. Drying Technology. 2022; 40(8): 1639–1657. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2021.1885059
7.Ksit B, Szymczak-Graczyk A, Nazarewicz B. Diagnostics and renovation of moisture affected historic buildings. Civil and Environmental Engineering Reports. 2022; 32(1). doi: 10.2478/ceer-2022-0001
8.Gopinath GR, Muthuvel S, Muthukannan M, et al. Design, development, and performance testing of thermal energy storage based solar dryer system for seeded grapes. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments. 2022; 51: 101923. doi: 10.1016/j.seta.2021.101923
9.Stawreberg L, Berghel J, Renström R. Energy losses by air leakage in condensing tumble dryers. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2012; 37: 373–379. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.11.050
10.Zahed AH, Zhu JX, Grace JR. Modelling and simulation of batch and continuous fluidized bed dryers. Drying Technology. 1995; 13: 1–28. doi: 10.1080/07373939508916938
11.Khaldi S, Korti AIN, Abboudi S. Improving the airflow distribution within an indirect solar dryer by modifications based on computational fluid dynamics. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2017; 25(03): 1750022. doi: 10.1142/S2010132517500228
12.Alishah A, Kiamahalleh MV, Yousefi F, Emami A, Kiamahalleh MV. Solar-assisted heat pump drying of coriander: an experimental investigation. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2018; 26(04): 1850037. doi: 10.1142/S2010132518500375
13.Oueslati H, Mabrouk S Ben, Mami A. Thermal Modeling of Solar Dryer—Numerical Simulation, Analysis and Performance Evaluation. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2018; 26(04): 1850032. doi: 10.1142/S2010132518500326
14.Salhi M, Chaatouf D, Raillani B, et al. Numerical Analysis of the Dynamic and Thermal Behavior of an Indirect Solar Dryer: Effect of the Outlet. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2021; 29(01): 2150001. doi: 10.1142/S2010132521500016
15.Wang D, Cao X, Li X, Li Y, Wang X. Experimental investigation of a part air dehumidification cascade-like heat pump drying system. International Journal of Refrigeration. 2021; 131: 235–243. doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2021.07.025
16.Azil A, Touati K, Sebaibi N, et al. Monitoring of drying kinetics evolution and hygrothermal properties of new earth-based materials using climatic chamber simulation. Case Studies in Construction Materials. 2023; 18. doi: 10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01758
17.Bhatsada A, Patumsawad S, Itsarathorn T, et al. Improvement of energy recovery potential of wet-refuse-derived fuel through bio-drying process. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag. 2023; 25(2): 637–649. doi: 10.1007/s10163-022-01556-w
18.Lamrani B, Bekkioui N, Simo-Tagne M, Ndukwu MC. Recent progress in solar wood drying: An updated review. Drying Technology. 2023; 41(5): 605–627. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2022.2102037
19.Çetin N, Ciftci B, Kara K, Kaplan M. Effects of gradually increasing drying temperatures on energy aspects, fatty acids, chemical composition, and in vitro ruminal fermentation of acorn. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2023; 30(8): 19749–19765. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-23511-2
20.Yang DL, Liu RK, Wei Y, Sun Q, Wang JX. Micro-sized nanoaggregates: Spray-drying-assisted fabrication and applications. Particuology. 2024; 85: 22–48. doi: 10.1016/j.partic.2023.05.001
21.Farinha S, Sá J V, Lino PR, et al. Spray freeze drying of biologics: a review and applications for inhalation delivery. Pharmaceutical Research. 2023; 40(5): 1115–1140. doi: 10.1007/s11095-023-03484-2
22.Kudra T. Energy aspects in drying. Drying Technology. 2004; 22(5): 917–932. doi: 10.1081/DRT-120038572
23.Kemp IC. Fundamentals of energy analysis of dryers. Modern drying technology. 2011; 4: 1–46. doi: 10.1002/9783527631720.ch1
24.Defraeye T. Advanced computational modelling for drying processes-A review. Applied Energy. 2014; 131: 323–344. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.06.027
25.Kerkhof PJ, Coumans WJ. Drying: a fascinating unit operation. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2002; 1(86): 1–2. doi: 10.1016/S1385-8947(01)00246-5
26.Ng AB, Deng S. A new termination control method for a clothes drying process in a clothes dryer. Applied Energy. 2008; 85(9): 818–829. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2008.01.002
27.Minea V. Overview of heat-pump-assisted drying systems, part I: Integration, control complexity, and applicability of new innovative concepts. Drying Technology. 2015; 33(5): 515–526. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2014.985794
28.Mensah K, Choi JM. Energy consumption and stability investigation of constant temperature and humidity test chamber. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2017; 25(01): 1750010. doi: 10.1142/S2010132517500101
29.Gatarić P, Širok B, Hočevar M, Novak L. Influence of load mass, drum speed and load composition on evenness of drying in a heat pump tumble dryer. Drying Technology. 2021; 1–13. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2021.1925298
30.Chung YM, Chung BJ, Kim DS. Analysis of Residential Electricity Usage Characteristics and the Effects of Shifting Home Appliance Usage Time under a Time-of-Use Rate Plan. Energies (Basel). 2023; 16(18): 6602. doi: 10.3390/en16186602
31.Maya-Drysdale L, Iversen NH, Gydensen A, Skov Hanse OM. Review study on household tumble driers - final report. 2019. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.34521.98407
32.Stawreberg L, Nilsson L. Modelling of specific moisture extraction rate and leakage ratio in a condensing tumble dryer. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2010; 30(14–15): 2173–2179. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2010.05.031
33.Bassily AM, Colver GM. Performance analysis of an electric clothes dryer. Drying technology. 2003; 21(3): 499–524. doi: 10.1081/DRT-120018900
34.Bansal P, Islam S, Sharma K. A novel design of a household clothes tumbler dryer. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2010; 30(4): 277–285. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2009.09.005
35.Shircliff M. Performance Prediction of Drying Process in Residential Clothes Dryer Using Multiphysics Modeling and Simulation. 2016. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.28164.35206
36.Lin Z, Wang H, Wang Y, et al. Experimental analysis on drying performance of a condensing clothes dryer with two new plate-fin heat exchangers. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering. 2023; 42: 102769. doi: 10.1016/j.csite.2023.102769
37.Ocharo HN, Komaki D. Quantifying potential power savings from household appliance consumption data: A methodological approach and estimated results. In: 2023 11th International Conference on Smart Grid (icSmartGrid). 2023: 322–327. doi: 10.1109/icSmartGrid58512.2023.00063
38.Novak L, Gatarić P, Širok B. Influence of drum inlet air conditions on drying process in a domestic tumble dryer. Drying technology. 2019; 37(6): 781–792. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2018.1461111
39.Plata S, Vicente W, Salinas-Vazquez M, Urbiola L. Analysis of the kinetic parameters of clothes drying in an electric vented dryer. Part II: Influence of the type of fabric. Drying Technology. 2023; 41(8): 1240–1251. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2022.2156538
40.Cummins AM, Malekpour AK, Smith AJ, Lonsdale S, Dean JR, Lant NJ. Impact of vented and condenser tumble dryers on waterborne and airborne microfiber pollution. PLoS One. 2023; 18. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282759
41.Dietrich H. Heat pump patent, Deutsche Patent 3407439. 1984.
42.Rasti M, Hatamipour MS, Aghamiri SF, Tavakoli M. Enhancement of domestic refrigerator's energy efficiency index using a hydrocarbon mixture refrigerant. Measurement. 2012; 45(7): 1807–1813. doi: 10.1016/j.measurement.2012.03.034
43.Senthilkumar D. Influence of cryogenic treatment on tic nanopowder in R600a and R290 refrigerant used in vapor compression refrigeration system. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2019; 27(04): 1950040. doi: 10.1142/S2010132519500400
44.Siddiqui MU, Owes A, Al-Amri FG, Saeed F. Recent Developments in the Search for Alternative Low-Global-Warming-Potential Refrigerants: A Review. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2020; 28(03): 2030004. doi: 10.1142/S2010132520300047
45.Purwadianto D, Sugiharto B. Performance of Low Power Electric Energy Clothes Dryers for Households. International Journal of Applied Sciences and Smart Technologies. 2023; 5(1): 39–54. doi: 10.24071/ijasst.v5i1.6274
46.Patel VK, Boudreaux PR, Gluesenkamp KR. Validated model of a thermoelectric heat pump clothes dryer using secondary pumped loops. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2021; 184: 116345. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.116345
47.TeGrotenhuis W, Butterfield A, Caldwell D, Crook A, Winkelman A. Modeling and design of a high efficiency hybrid heat pump clothes dryer. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2017; 124: 170–177. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.06.025
48.Yamaguchi Y, Seii E, Itagaki M, Nagayama M. Evaluation of domestic washing in Japan using life cycle assessment (LCA). International Journal of Consumer Studies. 2011; 35(2): 243–253. doi: 10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00960.x
49.Boyano A, Cordella M, Espinosa N, et al. Ecodesign and Energy Label for Household Washing Machines and Washer Dryers. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union; 2017. doi: 10.2760/686924
50.Denkenberger D, Calwell C, Beck N, Trimboli B, Driscoll D, Wold C. Analysis of Potential Energy Savings from Heat Pump Clothes Dryers in North America. Spokane: Ecova; 2013. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19151.71845
51.Mahlia TMI, Hor CG, Masjuki HH, Husnawan M, Varman M, Mekhilef S. Clothes drying from room air conditioning waste heat: thermodynamics investigation. Arab J Sci Eng. 2010; 35(1).
52.Mancini F, Minetto S, Fornasieri E. Thermodynamic analysis and experimental investigation of a CO2 household heat pump dryer. International Journal of Refrigeration. 2011; 34(4): 851–858. doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2011.01.019
53.Patel VK, Gluesenkamp KR, Goodman D, Gehl A. Experimental evaluation and thermodynamic system modeling of thermoelectric heat pump clothes dryer. Appl Energy. 2018; 217: 221–232. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.02.111
54.Sousa LHCD, Motta Lima OC, Pereira NC. Analysis of drying kinetics and moisture distribution in convective textile fabric drying. Drying Technology. 2006; 24(4): 485–497. doi: 10.1080/07373930600612027
55.Zhao J, Jian Q, Zhang N, Luo L, Huang B, Cao S. The improvement on drying performance and energy efficiency of a tumbler clothes dryer with a novel electric heating element. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2018; 128: 531–538. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.09.053
56.Jian Q, Luo L. The improvement on efficiency and drying performance of a domestic venting tumble clothes dryer by using a heat pipe heat recovery heat exchanger. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2018; 136: 560–567. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.03.036
57.Ahmadi M, Gluesenkamp KR, Bigham S. Energy-efficient sorption-based gas clothes dryer systems. Energy Convers Manag. 2021; 230: 113763. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113763
58.Cao X, Zhang J, Li ZY, Shao LL, Zhang CL. Process simulation and analysis of a closed-loop heat pump clothes dryer. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2021; 199: 117545. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.117545
59.Cay A, Tarakçıoğlu I, Hepbasli A. Exergetic analysis of textile convective drying with stenters by subsystem models: Part 1—Exergetic modeling and evaluation. Drying Technology. 2010; 28(12): 1359–1367. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2010.509709
60.Cay A, Tarakçıoğlu I, Hepbasli A. Exergetic analysis of textile convective drying with stenters by subsystem models: Part 2—Parametric study on exergy analysis. Drying Technology. 2010; 28(12): 1368–1376. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2010.498711
61.Yi T, Dye JC, Shircliff ME, Ashrafzadeh F. A New Physics-Based Drying Model of Thin Clothes in Air-Vented Clothes Dryers. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics. 2016; 21(2): 872–878. doi: 10.1109/TMECH.2015.2506179
62.Huang XM, Zhao Y, Liu HQ. Simulation and experimental study on drying process of the household gas clothes dryer. Mathematical Problems in Engineering. 2019. doi: 10.1155/2019/7127672
63.Stawreberg L. Energy efficiency improvements of tumble dryers: Technical development, laundry habits and energy labelling. Karlstad: Karlstad University; 2011. Karlstad University Studies 2011:43. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.33292.95360
64.Li Z, Cheekatamarla PK, Shen B. Effect of air path heat losses at different locations in vapor compression-based clothes dryer. Quasi-steady modeling and design implications. Drying Technology. 2026: 1–16. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2025.2510531
65.Somdalen R, Köhler J. Theoretical investigation of a novel thermoelectric laundry dryer concept. Mater Today Proc. 2018; 5(4): 10323–10332. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2017.12.272
66.Jones CR, Corona A, Amador C, Fryer PJ. Dynamics of fabric and dryer sheet motion in domestic clothes dryers. Drying Technology. 2022; 40(10): 2087–2104. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2021.1947326
67.Mellmann J. The transverse motion of solids in rotating cylinders—forms of motion and transition behavior. Powder Technol. 2001; 118(3): 251–270. doi: 10.1016/S0032-5910(00)00402-4
68.Govender I. Granular flows in rotating drums: A rheological perspective. Miner Eng. 2016; 92: 168–175. doi: 10.1016/j.mineng.2016.03.014
69.Yu X, Cui Y, Ding X. Investigation on damage behaviors of cotton fabric in different fabric motion patterns during tumble-drying process. Drying Technology. 2023; 41(7): 1183–1198. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2022.2131818
70.Conde MR. Energy conservation with tumbler drying in laundries. Applied Thermal Engineering. 1997; 17(12): 1163–1172. doi: 10.1016/S1359-4311(97)00023-8
71.Toal R, Morgan R, McMullan JT. Experimental studies of low-temperature drying by dehumidification. Part 1—Apparatus and theory. International Journal of Energy Research. 1988; 12(2): 299–314. doi: 10.1002/er.4440120210
72.Toal R, Morgan R, McMullan JT. Experimental studies of low-temperature drying by dehumidification. Part 2—Experimental. International Journal of Energy Research. 1988; 12(2): 315–344. doi: 10.1002/er.4440120211
73.Hekmat D, Fisk WJ. Improving the Energy Performance of Residential Clothesdryers. Lawrence Berkeley National Lab.(LBNL), Berkeley, CA (United States); 1984. doi: 10.2172/5702587
74.Boudreaux P, Gluesenkamp KR, Patel VK, Shen B. Measurement and analysis of clothes dryer air leakage. Drying Technology. 2021; 39(14): 2105–2117. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2020.1824189
75.Spruit FPM. Model van een trommeldroger. Eindhoven: Eindhoven University of Technology, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Science; 1988. EUT-BDK Report No. 30. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31090.84162
76.Kadoya K, Ohrnichi Y, Hosokawa F, Yamamoto T, Ishihara T. Condensation-type Clothes Dryer with New Heat-exchanger Fan. National Technical Report. 1984; 30(5): 613–619.
77.Kim JK. An experimental study on the optimum design of sirocco fan by using Taguchi method. Transactions of the Korean Society of Mechanical Engineers B. 1999; 23(6): 761–768. doi: 10.22634/KSME-B.1999.23.6.761
78.Roy RK. Design of experiments using the Taguchi approach: 16 steps to product and process improvement. John Wiley & Sons; 2001. doi: 10.1002/0471654645
79.Shen CC, Lu JH. The performance of condenser under different vehicle speeds. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2013; 21(02): 1350013. doi: 10.1142/S2010132513500130
80.Yousef K, Bolin C, Engeda A, Hegazy A. Experimental investigation of a refrigerant as a coolant of a power plant condenser. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2014; 22(04): 1450024. doi: 10.1142/S2010132514500242
81.Enteria N, Yoshino H, Mochida A, et al. Performance test of desiccant heating, ventilating and air-conditioning system by using multiple tracer gas dilution method. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2015; 23(04): 1550027. doi: 10.1142/S2010132515500277
82.Zhang Z, Gui N, Ge L, Li Z. Numerical study of particle mixing in a tilted three-dimensional tumbler and a new particle-size mixing index. Advanced Powder Technology. 2019; 30(10): 2338–2351. doi: 10.1016/j.apt.2019.07.001
83.Khalsa KPS, Sadhu S. Experimental study of domestic refrigerator performance improvement with evaporative condenser. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2021; 29(02): 2150015. doi: 10.1142/S2010132521500156
84.Zolotarevskiy V, Gallo SC, Pereira MP, Barnett MR. Modelling of impeller-tumbler wear test with discrete element method. Wear. 2022; 510: 204509. doi: 10.1016/j.wear.2022.204509
85.Fontana É, Donca R, Mancusi E, Ulson de Souza AA, Guelli Ulson de Souza SMA. Mathematical modeling and numerical simulation of heat and moisture transfer in a porous textile medium. The Journal of The Textile Institute. 2016; 107(5): 672–682. doi: 10.1080/00405000.2015.1054140
86.Akyol U, Erhan Akan A, Durak A. Simulation and thermodynamic analysis of a hot-air textile drying process. The Journal of the Textile Institute. 2015; 106(3): 260–274. doi: 10.1080/00405000.2014.916074
87.Welti-Chanes J, Vergara-Balderas F, Bermudez-Aguirre D. Transport phenomena in food engineering: Basic concepts and advances. Journal of Food Engineering. 2005; 67. doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.05.031
88.Çengel YA, Ghajar AJ. Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2015.
89.ASHRAE Handbook—1985 Fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers; 1985.
90.Tsilingiris PT. Combined heat and mass transfer analyses in solar distillation systems—The restrictive conditions and a validity range investigation. Solar energy. 2012; 86(11): 3288–3300. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2012.09.004
91.Tsilingiris PT. Theoretical derivation and comparative evaluation of mass transfer coefficient modeling in solar distillation systems—the Bowens ratio approach. Solar Energy. 2015; 112: 218–231. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2014.12.005
92.Collazo-Abreu PL, Morejón-Mesa Y, Fernández-Chuairey L, Vázquez-Alfonso Y. Mathematical and experimental models for the analysis of solar seed drying. Revista Ciencias Técnicas Agropecuarias. 2018; 27(1): 89–98.
93.Gu LD, Min JC, Tang YC. Effects of mass transfer on heat and mass transfer characteristics between water surface and airstream. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 2018; 122: 1093–1102. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.02.052
94.Brummans LGM. Modeling of Ink Drying in Porous Media [PhD thesis]. Eindhoven: Eindhoven University of Technology; 2019. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.24764.67200
95.He Q, Li C, Xue J, Chen J. Modeling and simulation of isothermal process of natural gas pipeline drying with dehydrated air. Drying Technology. 2020; 38(11): 1400–1410. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2019.1653318
96.Buysse S. The dryer section of a paper machine: modelling and simulation [MSc thesis]. Delft: Delft University of Technology; 2021. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31392.81923
97.Sabau AS, Contescu CI, Jellison GD, et al. Evaporation due to infrared heating and natural convection. Heat and Mass Transfer. 2020; 56(8): 2585–2593. doi: 10.1007/s00231-020-02869-y
98.Nienke T, Embrechts H, Kwade A, Eggerath D. Experimental and numerical investigation of the influence of nozzle design on the industrial convection drying of thin films. Drying Technology. 2021; 1–11. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2021.1929292
99.Chasiotis V, Tzempelikos D, Filios A. Evaluation of a Moisture Diffusion Model for Analyzing the Convective Drying Kinetics of Lavandula x allardii Leaves. Computation. 2021; 9(12): 141. doi: 10.3390/computation9120141
100.Glaskova T, Aniskevich A. Moisture absorption by epoxy/montmorillonite nanocomposite. Composites Science and Technologies. 2009; 69(15–16): 2711–2715. doi: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2009.08.007
101.Ghimire A. Basic Principles of Engineering. Morrisville, NC: Lulu Press; 2017.
102.Jiang Z, Xi Y, Gu X, Huang Q, Zhang W. Modelling of water vapour sorption hysteresis of cement-based materials based on pore size distribution. Cement and Concrete Research. 2019; 115: 8–19. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.09.009
103.Krischer O, Kast W. Die wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen der Trocknungstechnik [The scientific principles of drying technology]. Berlin: Springer; 1987. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-96566-9
104.Adapa PK, Schoenau GJ, Sokhansanj S. Performance study of a heat pump dryer system for specialty crops—Part 2: Model verification. International Journal of Energy Research. 2002; 26(11): 1021–1033. doi: 10.1002/er.835
105.Adapa PK, Schoenau GJ, Sokhansanj S. Performance study of a heat pump dryer system for specialty crops—part 1: development of a simulation model. International Journal of Energy Research. 2002; 26(11): 1001–1019. doi: 10.1002/er.834
106.Bergman TL, Lavine AS, Incropera FP, DeWitt DP. Introduction to heat transfer. John Wiley & Sons; 2011. doi: 10.1002/9781118135446
107.Bengtsson P, Berghel J, Renström R. Performance study of a closed-type heat pump tumble dryer using a simulation model and an experimental set-up. Drying technology. 2014; 32(8): 891–901. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2013.873469
108.Turner I, Mujumdar AS. Mathematical modeling and numerical techniques in drying technology. CRC Press; 1996. doi: 10.1201/9780367803616
109.Haghi AK. A Mathematical Model of theDrying Process. Acta Polytechnica. 2001; 41(3). doi: 10.14311/29
110.Bejan A, Dincer I, Lorente S, Miguel A, Reis H. Porous and complex flow structures in modern technologies. Springer Science & Business Media; 2004. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4757-4223-3
111.Lee KS, Yang B, Pyo SY, Kim HG, Lee DH, Kim SD. Drying performance of a tumbler dryer with condenser. Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering. 2006; 23(4): 658–662. doi: 10.1007/BF02706810
112.Stawreberg L, Nilsson L. Potential energy savings made by using a specific control strategy when tumble drying small loads. Appl Energy. 2013; 102: 484–491. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.08.038
113.Jian Q, Zhao J. Drying performance analysis of a condensing tumbler clothes dryer with a unique water cooled heat exchanger. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2017; 113: 601–608. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.11.073
114.Gluesenkamp KR, Boudreaux PR, Shen B, Goodman DK, Patel VK. Experimental Measurements of Clothes Dryer Drum Heat and Mass Transfer Effectiveness. Oak Ridge National Lab.(ORNL), Oak Ridge, TN (United States); 2018. doi: 10.2172/1435796
115.Lee BH, Sian RA, Wang CC. A rationally based model applicable for heat pump tumble dryer. Drying Technology. 2019; 37(6): 691–706. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2018.1469155
116.Granryd E, Melinder Å. Secondary refrigerants for indirect systems. Refrigerating Engineering, Granryd, KTH, Stockholm. 2005; 6: 2–6.
117.Gluesenkamp KR, Boudreaux P, Patel VK, Goodman D, Shen B. An efficient correlation for heat and mass transfer effectiveness in tumble-type clothes dryer drums. Energy. 2019; 172: 1225–1242. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2019.01.053
118.Shen B, Gluesenkamp K, Bansal P, Beers D. Heat pump clothes dryer model development. International Refrigeration And Air Conditioning Conference. 2016. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.33622.91205
119.Huelsz G, Urbiola-Soto L, López-Alquicira F, Rechtman R, Hernández-Cruz G. Total energy balance method for venting electric clothes dryers. Drying Technology. 2013; 31(5): 576–586. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2012.752745
120.Prasertsan S, Saen-Saby P, Ngamsritrakul P, Prateepchaikul G. Heat pump dryer Part 1: Simulation of the models. International Journal of Energy Research. 1996; 20(12): 1067–1079. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-114X(199612)20:12<1067::AID-ER203>3.0.CO;2-G
121.Krischer O, Kröll K. Die wissenschaftlichen grundlagen der trocknungstechnik. Springer-Verlag; 2013. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-92648-6
122.Huang K. Statistical mechanics. John Wiley & Sons; 2008. doi: 10.1002/9780470711330
123.Bassily AM, Colver GM. Correlation of the area-mass transfer coefficient inside the drum of a clothes dryer. Drying Technology. 2003; 21(5): 919–944. doi: 10.1081/DRT-120021428
124.Cochran M, Goodnight J, Babin B, Eckels S. Condensing dryers with enhanced dehumidification using surface tension elements. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2009; 29(4): 723–731. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.04.003
125.Smolsky BM, Sergeyev GT. Heat and mass transfer with liquid evaporation. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 1962; 5(10): 1011–1021. doi: 10.1016/0017-9310(62)90005-8
126.Kovacı T, Dikmen E, Şahin AŞ. Evaluation of heat mass performances for freeze drying of mint leaves. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 2022; 46. doi: 10.1111/jfpp.15920
127.Rasti M, Jeong JH. A Review of Models for Estimation of Moisture Evaporation Rate from Clothes Inside a Clothes Dryer. International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration. 2021; 29(01): 2130001. doi: 10.1142/S2010132521300011
128.AHAM. Household Tumble Type Clothes Dryers. AHAM HLD-1-1992. Washington, DC: Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers; 1992.
129.AHAM. Household Tumble Type Clothes Dryers. AHAM HLD-1-2009. Washington, DC: Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers; 2009.
130.Yu X, Li Y, Ding X. Dynamics of cotton textile motion in a domestic tumble dryer and its effect on drying performance. Textile Research Journal. 2021; 91(7–8): 851–873. doi: 10.1177/0040517520961047
131.Yu X, Cao W, Ding X. The effects of fabric's mechanical properties on its motion and drying performance in a domestic tumble dryer. Drying Technology. 2021; 39(4): 528–547. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2020.1819823
132.Lee J, Yun C, Park CH. Effect of Fabric Characteristics and Drum Rotation Speeds on the Movements and Drying Performances of Clothes in a Tumble Dryer. Fibers and Polymers. 2022; 1–12. doi: 10.1007/s12221-022-4956-7
133.Yu X, Cao W, Wei Y, Ding X. Wrinkling mechanism of woven cotton fabrics during domestic tumble drying. Drying Technology. 2018; 36(9): 1098–1106. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2017.1386692
134.Wei Y, Gong RH, Ning L, Ding X. Enhancing the energy efficiency of domestic dryer by drying process optimization. Drying Technology. 2018; 36(7): 790–803. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2017.1355311
135.Chen-Yu JH, Emmel J. Comparisons of fabric care performances between conventional and high-efficiency washers and dryers. Fashion and Textiles. 2018; 5(1): 1–19. doi: 10.1186/s40691-018-0133-3
136.El Fil B, Garimella S. The state of the art in energy saving techniques for garment/textile drying. Drying Technology. 2022; 40(11): 2235–2250. doi: 10.1080/07373937.2022.2035837
137.Higgins L, Anand SC, Hall ME, Holmes DA. Effect of tumble-drying on selected properties of knitted and woven cotton fabrics: Part I: Experimental overview and the relationship between temperature setting, time in the dryer and moisture content. Journal of the Textile Institute. 2003; 94(1–2): 119–128. doi: 10.1080/00405000308630601
138.Bansal PK, Braun JE, Groll EA. Improving the energy efficiency of conventional tumbler clothes drying systems. International Journal of Energy Research. 2001; 25(15): 1315–1332. doi: 10.1002/er.763
139.Braun JE, Bansal PK, Groll EA. Energy efficiency analysis of air cycle heat pump dryers. International Journal of refrigeration. 2002; 25(7): 954–965. doi: 10.1016/S0140-7007(01)00085-4
140.Sian RA, Wang CC. Comparative study for CO2 and R-134a heat pump tumble dryer—A rational approach. International Journal of Refrigeration. 2019; 106: 474–491. doi: 10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2019.07.013
141.El Fil B, Garimella S. Modeling and validation of a commercial gas-fired tumble dryer. Applied Thermal Engineering. 2021; 195: 117231. doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.117231
142.Cranston J, Askalany A, Santori G. Efficient drying in washer dryers by combining sorption and heat pumping. Energy. 2019; 183: 683–692. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2019.06.135
143.Zaman SU, Tao X, Cochrane C, Koncar V. E-textile systems reliability assessment—A miniaturized accelerometer used to investigate damage during their washing. Sensors. 2021; 21(2): 605. doi: 10.3390/s21020605
© 2025 by the EnPress Publisher, LLC. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.

Copyright © by EnPress Publisher. All rights reserved.

TOP